Вопросы истории и культуры

северных стран и территорий

------------------------------------

Historical and cultural problems

of northern countries and regions

 

Научные статьи

 

История

 

I.L. Zherebtsov

(Syktyvkar, Russia)

 

Climate in the ancient history of the Finno-Ugric peoples

 

The history of the Finno-Ugric peoples is diverse and rich in events. The fate has scattered them in different parts of Euro-Asia - from West Siberia to the Baltics, from the Arctic Ocean to the Danube. Great are the differences in culture and lifestyle. Today Hungarians, Finns, Komis, Mansi will not understand each other. However their languages have preserved the ancient words, being indicative of common character of the origin of these peoples. Gradual splitting, disintegration of their ancient common identity, as well as a number of other important stages in the development of the Finno-Ugric peoples turn out to be very closely connected with global changes in the climate, their importance in the history of the human civilization being paid attention to by many Russian and foreign researchers [4; 8; 19; 20 et al.]. 

Their works as well as thorough study of the most important aspects of the history of the Finno-Ugrians, Finno-Ugric languages by the scientists of different professions - linguists, archeologists, historians, ethnographers, and especially their indications on interconnection between some plots of this history and changes in the natural-climatic conditions [1; 2; 6; 13; 14; 16 et al.] permit to undertake an attempt to make  general review of the role of the climatic factor in the history of the Finno-Ugrians. The necessity or, at least, expediency for this is, in the opinion of the author, in that far from all relationships of the climatic changes with ethno-historical processes in the Finno-Ugric peoples have become a subject for discussion. Of course, it is impossible to speak about influence of the climate on all the Finno-Ugric history in a short article so we shall just speak of its ancient part.

The author will have to repeat many well known plots, since it seems more important to give systematic interpretation of the very approach to the above problem as he himself is interested in the study of the problem of interconnection of the climate and ethno-demographic processes and deals with this problem for over ten years [9, 10 et al.].

All development of mankind in one or another way was related with the resistance to harmful influence of unfavourable natural-climatic conditions, with longing to find "place under sun" that would allow to avoid this influence or at least minimize such. Naturally no human effort can stop or slow the global natural cataclysms, like glaciation. The pressure of glaciers broke comparatively settled life of the Paleolithic people, making ancient tribes vanish or move for enormous distances, depriving them of the possibility to develop their culture. And only millenniums after with glaciers retreat the possibility appeared before the people to make new spaces habitable, develop them, gradually forming their own special traditions of vital activity.

About 15 thousand years back rapid global warming of the climate began, that opened ways for forming different ethno-cultural, language identities, but already about 12700 B.C. the climate in West Europe was almost the same as nowadays. In VII millennium B.C. it was warmer in Europe than now. In the last centuries of that millennium it got cold, but then even warmer period came (VI-IV millennium B.C.). The new phase of warming was signified by the appearance of the Urals language identity, uniting remote ancestors of present Finno-Ugric and Samoyed peoples. The researchers think it existed already in the VI millennium B.C. [4; 16; 14].

Earlier, with warming in VII millennium, this identity did not yet exist, since West Siberia in that epoc had less climatic shifts for better, than, for instance, the Far East or Extreme Northeast of Euro-Asia; moreover, in the West Siberian region there was some cold snap that obviously did not favour to people, who wanted to settle there. Meantime this region was the original Motherland of the Uralic peoples: from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Yenisei and lower reaches of the Angara and Podkamennaya Tunguska in the east and from the Arctic Circle to the lower reaches of the Tobola and northern foothills of Sayan Mountains and Altai. While in VI-IV millennium B.C. West Siberia pertained to the regions where the most positive anomalies of the climate were observed [2; 4; 14].

With warming the climate the population grew in number, finding all more possibilities for food. With time the boundaries of the original Motherland have become too narrow for vastly increased amount of people. Certainly, as compared with the present, the density of the population, in spite of increase, remained rather low; however hunting-fishing type of economy required the extensive reserve territories for the development, which in the region of residence of one or another kin were far from boundless. As a result either growing of the population in number was restrained (owing to the lack of provisions, hunger and increasing of death-rate), or a part of inhabitants had to resettle in other regions.

 Possibly, the division of the Uralic language identity into Samoyed and Finno-Ugric one that occurred on the boundary of V and IV millennium B.C. was related with this relative overpopulation. If we consider this relative overpopulation as an important factor of division of the Uralic peoples, then, taking into account change in the climate - more probable seems that separation of Samoyed people from the Finno-Ugrians occurred at the end of V millennium B.C., since at the beginning of the next millennium the peak in the warm period took place (the climatic optimum), manifested in most of the regions of Euro-Asia, including West Siberia. No doubt, new improvement of the climatic conditions enabled to get more food products in habitable regions: more fish, the increase in temperature of water promoted that, more berries and other forest products.  All above was most beneficial for the demographic processes. As a result at the beginning of IV millennium B.C. there was no problem of relative overpopulation, and former "surplus" population has got the possibility to obtain food-stuffs on their native land, rather then search for them in other regions. Consequently, mass transmigrations and, resulting, division of the Uralic peoples were to occur not at this favourable time, but at preceding period [2; 4; 13; 14; 16].

The climatic optimum lasted during nearly whole IV millennium B.C., though temporary cold snaps occurred. This allowed the Finno-Ugrians to coexist for more than millennium in relative unity. However even conditions of the climatic optimum could not, naturally, provide the boundless growing of the number of the inhabitants, so now and then, probably, in separate local groups there appeared comparatively surplus population, which had to resettle outside the boundaries of their original Motherland. The mentioned temporary cold snaps, one of which occurred on the boundary of the first and second third of IV millennium B.C., influenced this process. Possibly, exactly at this period a part of the Finno-Ugrians left for beyond the Urals, in particular, to the basin of Kama [4].

Mid of IV millennium B.C. was warm, but also more dry, than in the preceding period. As a result steppes gradually lost vegetation, becoming semi-deserts, while steppe belt moved to the north, where earlier   meadows were situated; animals moved subsequent to change in the vegetation world. The population of the regions lying southward from the territory of the settling of the Finno-Ugrians, owing to drought, in search for food had to resettle to northern areas, forcing back or mingling with the Finno-Ugric tribes. Not accidentally exactly in mid of IV millennium B.C. the inflow of other-ethnic groups from the south to the former Uralic original Motherland took place. The result of migrations caused by arid climate had become the reinforcement of the breakup between Finno-Ugrians, mixed with the new-comers, and Samodians, resettled toward Yenisei. A part of the Finno-Ugrians under pressure of the southerners could move to the west, to the Volga and the Baltics, including the North of Europe, which in conditions of rather warm climate of that time could be quite attractive for migrants [16; 17].

At the end of IV millennium B.C. the climate around the world began to change. It became more humid, semi-deserts retreated southward, the herbal cover in steppes lying southward of the Finno-Ugric lands was restored, so they had again become quite suitable for life, and the inflow of migrants from these regions to the Finno-Ugric territory did not stop completely, but, anyway, became less, that gave the Finno-Ugric tribes a possibility to develop in more calm conditions, without significant external pressure and poor prospects for assimilation. This positive effect of the begun change in the climate was, however, "neutralized" by other side of the occurred change - some cold snap - that made slowing influence upon growing of the number of the Finno-Ugrians: the vegetative "gifts of nature" became less, the  problems with fishing appeared (the reduction of water temperature negatively effects the populations of river fish). In these conditions the surplus population which in search for food had to leave for other places [4], once again appeared there.

In mid of III millennium rather cold period began. In the Finno-Ugric kins and tribes the problem of "surplus" population appeared again, migrations increased. Some resettled to the west, beyond the Urals, where the related tribes already lived – to the basin of Kama, as well as to the upper reaches of the Vychegda and Pechora, and then, possibly, further. Another part of the population of West Siberia remained in the old place of residence - the ancient original Motherland could yet provide the remaining part with food products, more so that period of the cold snap and humidity turned out to be short - about 2200 B.C. the climate was somewhat changed for better, and transmigrations beyond the Urals sharply decreased, if not stopped at all. As a result, there began gradual isolation of separated by the Urals Mountains Finno-Ugric tribes in two branches, the contacts between which weakened and weakened [4; 14; 15; 16; 18].

Probably, warming of the climate in 2200 and improvement of life conditions promoted weakening of intensity of the transmigrations of the "European" Finno-Ugric kins further to the west that supports the idea of the Hungarian linguist P.Haidu that the Finno-Ugrians lived at that time not more west than the Volga and the mouth of Kama. This warming, I think, assisted the appearance of the Baltic cattle-breeding tribes in the Baltic states from the south that occurred just about 2200 B.C.; possibly, in the regions of the former habitation of the Balts (in the south) the drought began, while northern regions in conditions of more warm climate had become quite suitable for cattle-breeding [15; 16].

On the boundary of III and II millennium B.C. had come new, not too long-lasting cold snap. The climate on both sides of the Urals was rather humid. Once again there appeared the problem of "surplus population" that, as previously, was solved at the expense of migrations. The Trans-Urals Finno-Ugrians were faced with the economic crisis: the forests started to be bogged in the ancient original Motherland, the water level in river went up, flooding flood-plain meadows - the base for local cattle breeding. Finally they had to move south, where the forest belt gradually won back the new territories from the steppe. There the eastern Finno-Ugrians began actively contact with the Iranian peoples living more south that had influenced on their transition hereinafter to producing economy [4; 13; 14; 16].

Significant transmigrations occurred on the other side of the Urals as well. The tribes of the Finno-Ugrians moved from overpopulated regions to the west, to the basin of Oka, and further to the Baltics. More northern regions (the basins of Vychegda and Pechora) also attracted the migrants by relative small number of people and, hereupon, considerable possibilities for hunting and fishing. But cold snap nevertheless prevented development of the North, and comparatively mass transmigrations to those lands began only after 2000 B.C., when warming began. With improvement the climatic conditions the inflow of the population to the north increased, having reached, probably, its peak by mid of the millennium since about 1500 B.C. the climate in winter and in summer practically on the whole territory of the present Russia was warmer and more dry [4; 11; 15].

Between 1400 and 1300 B.C. cold snap and humidity of the climate has brought about gradual retreat of broad-leaved forests to the south and the west; the fur taiga, where there were less beasts and birds as it was more difficult to subsist on it, substituted for them. So, migrations to northern regions continued, but in smaller scale. On the contrary, the cold snap could act upon the outflow of part of the population from the North; possibly, exactly at that time moving of the population of the North Trans-Urals (the ancient Uralic peoples) to more southern regions of the Trans-Urals and mixing them with the northern part of the Ugric tribes began. Caused by climatic changes and relative overpopulation on the boundary of the millenniums the flows of migrants, moving in various directions (to the south, west and north), have brought to disintegration of the Finno-Ugric identity in two or even three groups: Ugric, Parent-Finno-Volga and Parent-Permian one [2; 14; 16; 18].

In the last centuries of II millennium B.C. the ancient Ugrians living in the south of West Siberia could, with anxiety, watch how their lands owing to climatic changes become more and more boggy. The Inhabitants of forest-steppe, adapting to new ecological-climatic conditions, had to decrease the live-stock of cattle, and either to grow more and more horses, or to spend more time in hunting. Those who decided to be occupied in horse breading (future ancestors of the Hungarians) preferred to move from bogs southward, to steppe. So around XII century the process of division of ancient Ugrians, considerably increased at the end of II millennium B.C. because of the next change of the climate, began. In the south of the Urals the droughts began, taiga had retreated, and the northern Ugrians (future Khanty and Mansi), trying to preserve the former complex economic structure (in which by that time the role of the hunt considerably increased) decided to leave this arid region in the south of the Urals and resettled to the middle (and, possibly, lower) Ob. The South Ugrians (future Magyars) remained in steppes and adapted in the changed conditions to another lifestyle, being occupied with migratory cattle breeding. Of course, this division had occurred not suddenly -  differences in ways of the occupation had formed at earlier period since even at that earlier time the Trans-Urals regions adjacent to steppe (where the southern Ugric tribes lived) were suitable for cattle breeding. According to L.N.Gumilev, exactly the boundary landscapes greatly influence the formation of new ethnoses. The fact that exactly at this period (by the end of II millennium B.C.) the Finno-Ugrians reached the White Sea, obviously, is related with warming, that promoted the development of high latitudes [5; 7; 13; 16].

In the first centuries of I millennium B.C. the temperature went down that became particularly noticeable in IX century B.C. This naturally had again brought about the appearance of the surplus population and activation of the transmigrations. The most intensive settling of a number of regions and, in particular, the Baltic states with Parent-Finno-Volga tribes as well as possible disintegration of the Parent-Finno-Volga identity in the Baltic-Finnish, Parent-Mordovian and Parent-Mari one is, possibly, related with this fact. The new cold snap resulted in the final estrangement of the Ugric peoples. The taiga advanced to the south, substituting the forest-steppe. As a result the Ob Ugrians turned out to be in the taiga zone completely, and  had to change their economic mode (in conditions of the reduction of the possibilities for pasturing the live-stock it was practically impossible to conduct stock-breeding). Probably, the increased inflow of the mentioned migrants from the north, who because of cold snap were compelled to migrate to more favourable habitats, had played its role. Finally, the Ob Ugrians, having changed their economic mode, forgot about horse breading. While Parent-Hungarians moving from the approaching taiga and following the retreating steppe, resettled to the south, where their contacts with the Iranians increased. As a result, the Parent-Ugrian peoples finally estranged, and by mid of I millennium B.C. their identity completely disintegrated [2; 4; 13; 16].

In the very mid of I millennium B.C. the climate has somewhat become better. Possibly, the movement of the Saami to Finland and Scandinavia, as well as beginning (or strengthening) of contacts of the Baltic-Finnish tribes with the Baltic ones, the last under the influence of the  warmer climate moved northward where they faced with the ancestors of Livs and Estonians [16], is related with some warming. Warming turned out to be short, and the second half of the millennium as a whole, especially last centuries turned out to be rather cold (in some regions – the coldest in that millennium). These conditions resulted in the crisis phenomena in the demographic development of the Finno-Ugric peoples: in Karelia and Finland  number of the population decreased. The begun process of the disintegration of the Parent-Permian language identity - the ancestors of the Udmurtians began to be isolated from the Komi and Komi-Permian ancestors [12; 15] – may be related with cold snap.

At that time, probably, the migrations of the Ob Ugrians took place, since that separation of the Parent-Mansi and Parent-Khanty languages from the Ob-Ugrian identity, as well as in the Samodians, who reached the Altai upland, started. It is quite possible that these transmigrations were also connected with the appearance of surplus population owing to the lack of food products because of worsening climate. Obviously, these intensive migrations caused the disintegration of the Parent-Samodian identity in the north and south subgroups. This disintegration - as well as division of the Ob-Ugrian languages – was finished later, in the first centuries of our era, when the climate began to change once again [16].

The Great transmigration of peoples caused by climatic changes, the small climatic optimum that had played enormous role in forming a number of the Finno-Ugric ethnoses, and, finally, smaller glaciation period that caused the demographic catastrophe in the Finno-Ugrians almost everywhere – they all were yet ahead. But this is a problem for a separate publication.

 

Literature:

 

1. The Archeology of the Republic of Komi. Moscow, 1997.

2. Atlas of the Republic of Komi. Moscow, 2001.

3. Borisenkov E.P. The climate and activity of man. Moscow, 1982.

4. Borisenkov E.P., Pasetsky V.M. The Thousand-year chronicle of unusual phenomena of nature.  Moscow, 1988.

5. Veresh P. Problem of the determination of the Finno-Ugric Parent Motherland  in the light of new data // Early stages of ethnic history and modern physical image of the Finno-Ugrians. Moscow, 2001.

6. Goldina R.D. Ancient and medieval history of the Udmurt people. Izhevsk, 1999.

7. Gumilev L.N. Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth. Leningrad, 1990.

8.  Dulov A.V. The Geographical surroundings and the history of Russia. Novosibirsk, 1983.

9. Zherebtsov I.L. Change of climate and demographic processes in the Komi land // European North: interaction of cultures in ancient times and Middle Ages. Syktyvkar, 1994.

10. Zherebtsov I.L. A Millennium of the Komi people: time, climate, man // Nature. Moscow, 2000. No. 7.

11. History of Karelia from ancient times to our days.  Petrozavodsk, 2001.

12. History of  Urals from ancient times to 1861. Moscow. 1989.

13. Kontler L. History of Hungary. Moscow, 2002.

14. Napolskih V.V. Introduction to historic uralistics. Izhevsk, 1997.

15. Baltic-Finnish peoples. The History and fates of related peoples. Juvaskyla, 1995.

16. Haidu P. The Uralic languages and peoples. Moscow, 1985.

17. Khalikov A.H. The Ancient history of the Middle Volga area. Moscow, 1969.

18. Khotinsky N.A. Holocene of the North Euro-Asia. Moscow, 1977.

19. Lamb H.H. Climate: Present, past and future. London, 1881. Vol. 1, 2.

20. Landcebery N.E., Dooglas K. Fragmentary accounts at weather and climate in America (1000-1670 DC) and on coastal storma to 1825 // Technical Note BN-1029. University of Meryland, 1984. XI.

 

© I.L. Zherebtsov

 

 

Журнал создан в сотрудничестве с Министерством регионального развития Российской Федерации

 

 

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